System and Method for Making Boron Oxide Nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

A method of making boron oxide nanoparticles. The method can comprise sonochemically treating a composition comprising a boron oxide to form boron oxide nanoparticles. The method allows for the formation of these nanoparticles from non-toxic, inexpensive reagents and ambient reaction conditions. Additionally, the nanoparticles produced by the teachings described herein can be easily surface functionalized.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is based on, claims priority to, and incorporates herein by reference in its entirety U.S. Ser. No. 62/679,069 filed Jun. 1, 2018, and entitled “System and Method for Making Boron Oxide Nanoparticles.”

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under GM124746 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates to systems and methods for synthesizing nanoscale particles. More particularly, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for making boron oxide nanoparticles.

Nanoscale architectures of oxide-based materials have been extensively developed due to their diverse applications in the areas ranging from photonics to drug delivery. The properties of nanomaterials can be altered by tuning their morphology, which is beneficial to tailor materials for specific applications. Although efforts at nanostructuring metal and non-metal oxides (e.g., TiO₂, Fe₂O₃, SiO₂, Al₂O₃) have garnered much attention over the years, there has been limited research conducted on synthetic methods for producing well-defined nanoscale B₂O₃ systems. Bulk B₂O₃ is a commonly used component in oxide glasses and ceramics for radiation shielding, optical, and dielectric applications. Unfortunately, processing options for bulk B₂O₃ require high temperatures for melting and sintering, as well as specialized equipment. The development of nanoscale B₂O₃ would therefore be potentially useful for creating solution-processable coating materials, or for fabricating novel composite materials that contain discrete amounts of B₂O₃ nanoparticles. Computational predictions on the structure and morphologies of nano-B₂O₃ have been theoretically explored, however, experimental endeavors to synthesize nanoscale boron oxide remain largely unsuccessful. Prior attempts at nanostructuring boron oxide-based materials have primarily used ball-milling, which presents limitations with respect to the size and homogeneity of the nanoproducts formed. Furthermore, due to the moderate solubility of B₂O₃ in water, it is not feasible to apply solution-based, bottom-up synthetic routes (co-precipitation, hydrothermal, and aqueous sol-gel) that precipitate out insoluble metal oxides.

Turning to one possible application for B₂O₃ nanoparticles, there has been a long-standing history in the development of boron-rich compounds suitable for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). This technology is potentially promising for treatment of metastatic tumors (e.g., glyoblastoma carcinoma) and skin cancers. Recently, there has been a revived interest in this approach given the breakthroughs achieved in medical neutron generation that do not rely on nuclear reactors. These developments further drive the need to create boron-rich scaffolds that are non-toxic and amenable to functionalization. To date, boron-based nanomaterials synthesized for potential use in BNCT include boron nanocomposites, boron nitride, boron carbide, and various boronated and boron-functionalized nanostructures. However, their relatively large sizes and morphologies could lead to a lower nanomaterial cellular uptake. Additionally, larger nanomaterials (>50 nm) are known to have difficulty penetrating the blood brain barrier, and show increased accumulation in the body.

Therefore, it would be desirable to have systems and methods for synthesizing nanoscale boron particles without the limitations of size and homogeneity that traditional methods have. Small, uniform boron nanoparticle compositions would have the potential to be immensely beneficial to BNCT as well as other applications.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The present disclosure addresses the aforementioned needs by providing systems and methods that allow for the synthesis of boron oxide nanoparticles using a facile process that can rely on novel top-down sonochemical approach. The described techniques are capable of producing compositions of very small boron oxide nanoparticles that have a high degree of uniformity. Unlike many prior methods, the formation techniques discussed herein require very few intermediary steps, can use readily-available starting materials, and do not require harsh operating conditions.

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of making boron oxide nanoparticles. The method can comprise sonochemically treating a solution comprising a boron oxide to form boron oxide nanoparticles.

In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a composition. The composition can comprise a plurality of boron oxide nanoparticles having an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 5 nanometers with a standard deviation of less than 1 nanometer.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a composition for use as an agent for neutron capture therapy of cancer. The composition can comprise boron oxide nanoparticles, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 50 nanometers and are isotopically labeled with Boron-10.

In still another aspect, the present disclosure provides a system for making boron oxide nanoparticles. The system can comprise a solution comprising boron trioxide and a probe sonicator configured to apply sound energy to the solution to form boron oxide nanoparticles.

In yet another aspect, the present disclosure provides a composition for use as a precursor to an agent for proton beam therapy is provided. The composition may comprise boron oxide nanoparticles, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 50 nanometers and are isotopically labeled with Boron-11.

The foregoing and other aspects and advantages of the disclosure will appear from the following description. In the description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which there is shown by way of illustration a preferred configuration of the disclosure. Such configuration does not necessarily represent the full scope of the disclosure, however, and reference is made therefore to the claims and herein for interpreting the scope of the disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The invention will be better understood and features, aspects and advantages other than those set forth above will become apparent when consideration is given to the following detailed description thereof. Such detailed description makes reference to the following drawings.

FIG. 1 depicts a process flowchart of a method of making boron oxide nanoparticles, in accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 2A-E depict experimental results for the described examples. FIG. 2A: SEM image of bulk B₂O₃; FIG. 2B: low-magnification TEM image of OA-B₂O₃ NPs, inset high-magnification TEM image: FIG. 2C: low-magnification TEM image of CMD-B₂O₃ NPs, inset high-magnification TEM image; FIG. 2D: FTIR spectra of bulk B₂O₃, OA-B₂O₃ NPs and CMD-B₂O₃ NPs; FIG. 2E: B 1s and O 1s XPS spectra of bulk B₂O₃, OA-B₂O₃ NPs and CMD-B₂O₃ NPs.

FIG. 3 depicts representation of the phase transfer capping from an OA-B₂O₃ NP to a CMD-B₂O₃ NP.

FIGS. 4A-C depict experimental results for the described examples. FIG. 4A: TEM image of OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs, inset SAED with labeled indices for prominent rings; FIG. 4B: HRTEM image of CMD-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs; FIG. 4C: flow cytometry of CHO cells incubated with no nanoparticles, OA-B₂O₃ NPs, OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs, CMD-B₂O₃ NPs, or CMD-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs for 24 hours. Dead cells were characterized as exhibiting fluorescence greater than 10². Error bars represent the standard deviation of three replicate samples.

FIG. 5 depicts an experimental TEM image of OA-B₂O₃ NPs with size distribution chart. Average particle diameter was calculated to be 4.31±0.54 nm.

FIG. 6 depicts a HRTEM image of OA-B₂O₃ NPs with corresponding live FFT with labeled indices for B₂O₃.

FIG. 7 depicts an experimental FTIR spectra of neat oleic acid (bottom) and pure CM-dextran (top).

FIG. 8 depicts an experimental FTIR spectra of OA-B₂O₃ NPs (top) and CMD-B₂O₃ NPs (bottom) illustrating the v_(as)(COO⁻) and v_(s)(COO⁻) bands.

FIG. 9 depicts an experimental O 1s XPS spectra of bulk B₂O₃, OA-B₂O₃ NPs and CMD-B₂O₃ NPs. Lighter lines represent peak-fitted spectra due to multiple O 1s surface environments.

FIG. 10 depicts an experimental ¹¹B solid-state MAS NMR spectra of OA-B₂O₃ NPs and bulk B₂O₃. The upfield ‘shoulder peak’ observed is likely due to ¹¹B having a quadrupolar nucleus.

FIG. 11 depicts an experimental TGA curves of bulk B₂O₃, OA-B₂O₃ NPs and CMD-B₂O₃ NPs.

FIGS. 12A-B depict separate experimental low magnification TEM images of B₂O₃ nanoparticles obtained from microwave treatment in oleic acid showing a large size distribution ranging from 3 to 40 nm diameter nanoparticles.

FIGS. 13A-B depict experimental low magnification TEM images of products obtained from the probe sonication reactions of bulk B₂O₃ in saturated solution of dextran (4000 MW) (FIG. 13A) and polyethylene glycol solution (FIG. 13B).

FIG. 14 depicts an experimental SEM image of synthesized bulk ¹⁰B₂O₃ powder.

FIG. 15 depicts an experimental ¹⁰B solid-state MAS NMR spectrum of bulk ¹⁰B₂O₃ powder.

FIG. 16 depicts an experimental TEM image of OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs with a size distribution chart. Average particle diameter was calculated to be 4.94±0.91 nm.

FIG. 17 depicts an experimental ATR-FTIR spectra of bulk ¹⁰B₂O₃, OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs, and CMD-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs.

FIG. 18 depicts experimental B 1s and O 1s XPS spectra of bulk ¹⁰B₂O₃, OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs, and CMD-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs.

FIG. 19 depicts experimental flow cytometry of high concentration samples of OA-¹¹B₂O₃ NPs and OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs for 24 hours. Dead cells were characterized as exhibiting fluorescence greater than 10². Error bars represent the standard deviation of three replicate samples.

FIG. 20 depicts a schematic illustration of a system for making boron oxide nanoparticles, in accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As used herein, the term “nontoxic” carries its general meaning in the art as it relates to mammalian cell health. For example, a “nontoxic” substance may be one that does not directly cause substantial cell death at a specified concentration. More specifically, a “nontoxic” substance may be one that, when provided to Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells incubated at conditions comparable to those of the examples experiments herein, results in cell death of less than 1%, 2%, 5%, or 10% after 24 hours, 48 hours, or 1 week for a given concentration.

As used herein, the term “capping agent” may refer to a substance that inhibits nanoparticle overgrowth and aggregation during synthesis and controls the structural characteristics of the resulted nanoparticles in a precise manner. In order to achieve this functionality, a capping agent may cover the surface of nanoparticles, thereby shielding the particles from coagulation or aggregation. Because the effectiveness of capping agents can vary based on nanoparticle composition, the term “capping agent” in the present disclosure may generally refer to a substance that inhibits boron oxide nanoparticle overgrowth.

The novel systems and methods described herein allow for the synthesis of boron oxide nanoparticles using a facile process. The present disclosure allows for the formation of these nanoparticles from non-toxic, inexpensive reagents, and ambient reaction conditions. Typically, stronger conditions such as high temperatures and pH, or the use of strong reducing agents are required to yield uniformly sized nanoparticles. The present disclosure achieves small, uniform nanoparticles without using any of these unfavorable reagents or reaction conditions. Additionally, the nanoparticles produced by the teachings described herein can be easily surface functionalized. An additional noteworthy aspect of the present disclosure is the non-toxicity of the boron oxide nanoparticles to mammals, making them prospective candidates for agents or precursors to agents to be used in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT).

As will be described, the systems, methods, and compositions of the present disclosure may be configured for use in a variety of applications, including, as a non-limiting example, the creation of B₂O₃ nanoparticles to be used in boron neutron capture therapy.

FIG. 1 depicts a process flowchart of a method 100 of making boron oxide nanoparticles. The method comprises a first step 102 of sonochemically treating a composition comprising a boron oxide to form boron oxide nanoparticles. The boron oxide may specifically be boron trioxide. The solution may comprise at least one capping agent. For instance, the solution may contain oleic acid as a capping agent. The capping agent may be in the form of a liquid. The boron oxide may be dissolved or suspended in the liquid prior to the method step of sonication. The method step 102 of sonochemically treating the solution may comprise applying probe sonication to the solution at sufficient energy levels and for a suitable time period to synthesize the boron oxide nanoparticles. For instance, the solution may be probe sonicated for at least 10 minutes, at least 30 minutes, at least 1 hour, between 1 and 5 hours, between 2 and 4 hours, or for about 3 hours. A probe sonicator similar to the QSonica Q125 sonicator may be used to apply the probe sonication at an amplitude of about 50. The solution may be chilled during the sonochemical treatment step using an ice bath or an alternative cooling system.

The method may comprise a second step 104 of isolating and vacuum drying the boron oxide nanoparticles. For instance, the boron oxide nanoparticles and the solution may be centrifuged to remove the supernatant fluid and then vacuum dried using a lyophilizer. Once vacuum dried, the boron oxide nanoparticles may be in the form of a solid powder.

The method may further comprise a third step 106 of modifying the surface functionality of the nanoparticles. For instance, the third step may comprise solubilizing the boron oxide nanoparticles. Solubilizing the boron oxide nanoparticles may include contacting the nanoparticles with a water-soluble capping agent for a sufficient period of time. The water-soluble capping agent may specifically be carboxymethyl-dextran. Once solubilized, the nanoparticles may characterized as being fully soluble in deionized water. This third step may comprise stirring the boron oxide nanoparticles in a solution comprising a water-soluble capping agent. Unlike prior methods for functionalizing boron-based nanostructures which often involve coupling chemical reactions or milling, simple agitation may be sufficient to produce such surface modifications.

In one aspect, a composition comprising a plurality of boron oxide nanoparticles having an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 5 nanometers with a standard deviation of less than 1 nanometer is provided. The boron oxide nanoparticles may comprise boron trioxide. The composition may be soluble in aqueous solutions. The boron oxide nanoparticles may comprise a water soluble capping agent. For instance, the water-soluble capping agent may be carboxymethyl-dextran. The composition may be a composite with the boron oxide nanoparticles being homogenously distributed throughout the composition. For instance, the composition may be a polymer or ceramic with the boron oxide nanoparticles distributed throughout. Alternatively, the composition may be in the form of a film applied to an article. Including an appropriate concentration of the boron oxide nanoparticles in the solution may allow the material to function as a radiation shield.

In another aspect, a composition for use as an agent for neutron capture therapy of cancer is provided. The composition may comprise boron oxide nanoparticles, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 50 nanometers and are isotopically labeled with Boron-10. The small size of the boron oxide nanoparticles may allow for improved targeting of cancerous tumors by, for example, allowing for increased nanomaterial cellular uptake. The composition may be a precursor to an agent for boron neutron capture therapy. The boron oxide nanoparticles of the composition may have a substantially spherical shape. The boron oxide nanoparticles may comprise boron trioxide. The boron oxide nanoparticles may be in the form of a dry powder. The composition may be soluble in aqueous solutions. The composition may be non-toxic to mammalian cells at concentrations of less than 1 mM. The composition may be non-toxic to mammalian cells at concentrations of less than 1.7 mM.

In yet another aspect, a composition for use as a precursor to an agent for proton beam therapy is provided. The composition may comprise boron oxide nanoparticles, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 50 nanometers and are isotopically labeled with Boron-11. The small size of the boron oxide nanoparticles may allow for improved targeting of cancerous tumors by, for example, allowing for increased nanomaterial cellular uptake. The composition may be a precursor to an agent for boron neutron capture therapy. The boron oxide nanoparticles of the composition may have a substantially spherical shape. The boron oxide nanoparticles may comprise boron trioxide. The boron oxide nanoparticles may be in the form of a dry powder. The composition may be soluble in aqueous solutions. The composition may be non-toxic to mammalian cells at concentrations of less than 1 mM. The composition may be non-toxic to mammalian cells at concentrations of less than 1.7 mM. The unique composition of the nanoparticles may lead to a significant enhancement of the efficacy of various proton-beam therapy treatments.

FIG. 20 depicts a system 200 for making boron oxide nanoparticles. The system includes a solution comprising boron trioxide 202; and a probe sonicator 204 configured to apply sound energy to the solution to form boron oxide nanoparticles. The solution may comprise a capping agent. The system further comprises a separator 206 configured to isolate the boron oxide nanoparticles by removing the supernatant capping agent. The capping agent may specifically be oleic acid. The system further comprises a lyophilizer 208 configured to vacuum dry the solution. The system further comprises a temperature control system 210 configured to cool the solution during sonication. For instance, an ice bath may be used to regulate the temperature of the solution.

The resulting nanoparticles of the systems, methods, and compositions described herein may have a generally small, uniform construction. For instance, the plurality of nanoparticles may have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than about 100, about 50, about 20, about 10, about 8, about 7, about 6, about 5, or about 4 nanometers. The plurality of nanoparticles may have an average cross-sectional diameter between about 4 and 5 nanometers. The plurality of nanoparticles may have a size and shape that allow the nanoparticles to cross the blood-brain barrier. The particle diameter that is averaged may refer to either the largest cross-sectional diameter or an average cross-sectional diameter for each individual particle. The formed particles may have a generally uniform shape and size. For instance, the plurality of particles may have a cross-sectional diameter standard deviation of less than about 5, about 4, about 3, about 2, about 1, or about 0.5 nanometers. The systems, methods, and compositions described herein may be substantially free of particles above about 100, about 50, about 30, about 20, or about 10 nanometers.

The formed nanoparticles may have a substantially spherical shape. The nanoparticles may comprise boron trioxide and a capping agent. The nanoparticles may consist essentially of boron trioxide and a capping agent. The nanoparticles may consist of boron trioxide and a capping agent. The capping agent may be oleic acid or carboxymethyl-dextran. The boron oxide may be isotopically labeled with Boron-10. The degree of isotope labeling may be sufficient to properly function as an agent for boron neutron capture therapy. The degree of isotope labeling may be higher than the natural occurrence of Boron-10 in nature. For instance, a majority of the Boron atoms in the nanoparticles may be the Boron-10 isotope. Similarly, the boron oxide may alternatively be isotopically labeled with Boron-11. The degree of isotope labeling may be higher than the natural occurrence of Boron-11 in nature. For instance, above 90% of the Boron atoms in the nanoparticles may be the Boron-11 isotope.

Although boron trioxide is often discussed as the starting material in the systems and methods for making boron oxide nanoparticles discussed herein, alternative bulk starting materials may be used, such as boron oxides other than boron trioxide or even alternative boron starting materials. For instance, the bulk starting material may be boric acid, or a similar derivative. Although oleic acid is often discussed as the initial capping agent, alternative capping agents can be used in the solution prior to sonication. The capping agent may be selected to have similar advantageous properties to those of oleic acid, such as a high boiling point or a biocompatibility. Furthermore, as an alternative to applying a sonochemical treatment, microwave radiation may be applied to the solution comprising a boron oxide in the systems and methods described herein.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are provided in order to demonstrate and further illustrate certain embodiments and aspects of the present disclosure and are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosure.

Example 1

An experiment was conducted to validate the sonochemical methods discussed herein. Among other results, the multifaceted experiment allowed for the preparation of uniform, ultra-small (4-5 nm) B₂O₃ nanoparticles utilizing bulk B₂O₃ powder as the starting material.

The study was commenced by performing a sonochemical treatment on bulk B₂O₃ powder (FIG. 2A) in the presence of oleic acid, serving a dual role as the reaction medium and capping agent. Oleic acid was chosen due to its biocompatibility, high boiling point, and widespread use in stabilizing nanoparticles. Without being bound by theory, it is thought that the B₂O₃ nanoparticles formed from this treatment got rapidly capped with oleic acid which limited the reaction domain and prevented nanoparticle aggregation, similar to the surface modification observed in metal oxide nanoparticles. The composition, morphology and surface modification of the oleic acid-capped B₂O₃ nanoparticles (OA-B₂O₃ NPs) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

To synthesize the nanoparticles, a 0.1 g (1.43 mmol) of boron trioxide powder (>98%, Fisher Scientific) and 10 mL (35 mmol) of oleic acid (99%, Sigma Aldrich) were taken in a 50 mL centrifuge tube. The reaction mixture was then probe sonicated (QSonica Q125 sonicator) at 50 amplitude for 3 hours while placed in an ice bath. Following this, the colloidal product obtained was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes and the supernatant oleic acid was discarded. The solid product was washed with 5 mL of anhydrous hexane (95%, Sigma Aldrich) and vacuum dried on a lyophilizer to produce a fluffy, white powder. When suspended in deionized water, the nanoproduct formed a colloidal dispersion, indicating the presence of hydrophobicity.

Examining the morphology using TEM illustrated that the product from the sonochemical reaction consisted of uniform, spherical, ultra-small nanoparticles with an average size of 4.31±0.54 nm in diameter (FIG. 2B and FIG. 5). This is in stark contrast to the micron-sized platelets comprising the bulk B₂O₃ starting material (FIG. 2A). High-resolution TEM coupled with SAED on the nanoparticles showed polycrystalline rings (FIG. 6), which were indexed to B₂O₃. Even though B₂O₃ is typically amorphous, it appears that the prolonged heat treatment arising from the high temperature associated with probe sonication led to the formation of crystalline domains in the B₂O₃ nanoparticles. The FTIR spectrum of the OA-B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 2D) displayed the typical stretching frequencies of B₂O₃ and oleic acid (FIG. 7), confirming the presence of oleic acid on the nanoparticles. We can further utilize the IR stretching frequency values to provide insight on the mechanism of capping on B₂O₃ nanoparticles. Upon closer inspection of the v_(as)(COO⁻) and v_(s)(COO⁻) IR bands (FIG. 8), we calculated Δv to be 247 cm⁻¹, which points towards a κ¹ interaction of oleic acid with the nanoparticle. The surfaces of the bulk B₂O₃ and OA-B₂O₃ NPs were analyzed by XPS (FIG. 2E). The B 1s peaks (FIG. 2E) shift from 189.5 eV in bare bulk B₂O₃ to 188.6 eV in OA-B₂O₃ NPs, indicating that the surface B—O environment in OA-B₂O₃ NPs has been altered upon capping. The O 1s XPS spectra of OA-B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 2E) also exhibited a binding energy shift to 528.0 eV, compared with 529.4 eV in bulk B₂O₃. Further resolution of the O 1s peaks (FIG. 10) indicated the presence of two peaks that are assigned to the B—O and O═C—O binding sites. ¹¹B solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy of bulk B₂O₃ and OA-B₂O₃ NPs revealed a change in chemical shift from 14.6 to 16.2 ppm respectively (FIG. 10). The observed chemical shift of bulk B₂O₃ is consistent with crystalline B₂O₃, and the downfield shift for OA-B₂O₃ NPs can be attributed to deshielding that occurs due to the binding of non-bridging oxygens (COO⁻ in this case). The zeta potential value of OA-B₂O₃ NPs was measured to be −51.3 mV which is indicative of the presence of negatively charged functional groups, such as the carboxylate groups of oleic acid. Moreover, the highly negative zeta potential value shows that the OA-B₂O₃ NPs possess good colloidal stability. During our investigations, we also performed control reactions on bulk B₂O₃ to determine the optimal conditions for synthesizing ultra-small B₂O₃ nanoparticles.

To synthesize oleic acid-capped B₂O₃ nanoparticles via microwave treatment, 0.1 g (1.43 mmol) of boron trioxide powder (>98%, Fisher Scientific) and 10 mL (35 mmol) of oleic acid (99%, Sigma Aldrich) were taken in a 22 mL glass tube equipped with Teflon cap. The reaction mixture was then subjected to microwave radiation at 300° C. for 3 hours. Following this, the colloidal product obtained was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes and the supernatant oleic acid was discarded. The solid product was washed with 5 mL of anhydrous hexane (95%, Sigma Aldrich) and vacuum dried on a lyophilizer to produce a fluffy, white powder.

Microwave treatment of bulk B₂O₃ in oleic acid yielded B₂O₃ nanoparticles with a broad size distribution (FIGS. 12A-B) whereas probe sonication reactions of B₂O₃ in the presence of other capping agents (dextran, PEG) produced large fragments that lacked a well-defined morphology (FIGS. 13A-B). Thereby, we established that the combination of probe sonication with oleic acid as the capping agent is most effective for making uniform, ultra-small B₂O₃ nanoparticles, of the methods tested.

In order to explore processing options for B₂O₃ NPs, the next step in our synthetic protocol entailed surface modification of the OA-B₂O₃ NPs with carboxymethyl-dextran (CMD), a water-soluble capping agent (FIG. 3). This is essential to solubilize the nanoparticles for various aqueous-based applications. We performed a phase transfer reaction on OA-B₂O₃ NPs using a saturated solution of CMD and characterized the resulting mixture by various analytical techniques.

To synthesize the carboxymethyl-dextran-capped B₂O₃ nanoparticles, 2 mg of the oleic acid-capped B₂O₃ nanoparticles were suspended in 1 mL hexane and vigorously stirred in a saturated solution of carboxymethyl-dextran (BioXtra, Sigma Aldrich, 0.015 g in 2 mL deionized water) for 24 hours at 25° C. After stirring, the nanoparticles were centrifuged twice and the supernatant organic layer was discarded. The product was vacuum dried on a lyophilizer to produce a fluffy, white powder. The nanoproduct was fully soluble when suspended in deionized water.

While the resulting NPs became soluble in water, their morphology remained unchanged based on TEM analysis, suggesting successful synthesis of CMD-capped B₂O₃ nanoparticles (CMD-B₂O₃ NPs, FIG. 2C). Consistent with this hypothesis, the FTIR spectrum of the CMD-B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 2D) displayed stretching frequencies of B₂O₃ and carboxymethyl-dextran (FIG. 7), with the Δv of 190 cm⁻¹ indicating a bridging bidentate capping of the B₂O₃ NPs through the carboxylate group (FIG. 8). XPS analyses (FIG. 2E) on CMD-B₂O₃ NPs exhibited a B 1s peak at 188.5 eV, comparable to the B—O environment in OA-B₂O₃ NPs. The O 1s spectra (FIG. 9) revealed the presence of B—O, O═C—O and O—H sites, signifying a slight change in surface environment occurring as a result of ligand exchange. This trend is close to that observed for OA-B₂O₃ NPs, owing to the similarities in the surface binding group of oleic acid and carboxymethyl-dextran. Indeed, the zeta potential of CMD-B₂O₃ NPs was measured to be −33.5 mV (Table 6), which is ascribed to the anionic carboxylate groups on the surface. Likewise, the high negative zeta potential value indicates that the CMD-B₂O₃ NPs are also stable as colloidal dispersions.

Example 2

In order to study the possible use of the method for making boron-rich compounds suitable for boron neutron capture therapy, we synthesized bulk isotopically labelled ¹⁰B₂O₃ (FIG. 14) with the aim of extending the above discussed nanostructuring methodologies to the bulk ¹⁰B₂O₃ powder. We successfully obtained products consisting of ultra-small, spherical shaped, OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 4A), and CMD-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 4B) having an average particle diameter of 4.9±0.9 nm (FIG. 16). SAED on the OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs (FIG. 4A) showed polycrystalline rings that were indexed to a mixture of B₂O₃ polymorphs. The FTIR and XPS spectra for the OA-capped and CMD-capped ¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs (FIGS. 17 and 18) were in agreement with the observations for the corresponding B₂O₃ nanoparticles (FIGS. 2D-E) and substantiated the respective surface functionalization.

This straightforward two-step synthesis of biocompatible ¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs is especially useful when compared with the multi-step routes currently applied to make molecular ¹⁰B-enriched boron-rich BNCT agents. Particularly, the synthesis of derivitized boron clusters for BNCT proceed through several intermediates, and utilize higher cost ¹⁰B₂H₆ or ¹⁰B₃H₈ as starting materials. In contrast, the above-discussed nanochemistry presents an inexpensive and scalable route towards making ¹⁰B-enriched B₂O₃-based BNCT agents from commercially available ¹⁰B(OH)₃ or ¹⁰B₂O₃. In order to investigate the toxicity of the nanoparticles, we employed a flow cytometry assay on Chinese hamster ovarian (CHO) cells in which the cells were incubated with B₂O₃ and ¹⁰B₂O₃ nanoparticles for 24 hours, and analyzed via fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). Dose-dependent studies showed that the nanoparticles were non-toxic for concentrations ranging from 0.003 μM to 0.4 μm (FIG. 4C). Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) was utilized to determine the B₂O₃ and ¹⁰B₂O₃ sample concentrations listed in FIG. 4C. Furthermore, we observed that even administering B₂O₃ NPs concentrations as high as 1.7 mM proved to be non-toxic to the CHO cells (FIG. 19). The theoretical boron content per B₂O₃ nanoparticle of 4 nm diameter was calculated to be ˜1500 boron atoms. Therefore, this concentration corresponds to a maximum value of ˜6.6×10 boron atoms per cell, which is several orders of magnitude greater than the BNCT required minimum of 1×10¹¹ boron atoms. The apparent cell growth observed for cells incubated with OA-B₂O₃ NPs and OA-¹⁰B₂O₃ NPs is consistent with findings that suggest that oleic acid improves cell growth of CHO cells.

The present invention has been described in terms of one or more preferred aspects, and it should be appreciated that many equivalents, alternatives, variations, and modifications, aside from those expressly stated, are possible and within the scope of the invention.

For the avoidance of doubt, aspects of the present disclosure described with respect to the systems and compositions are applicable to the methods and aspects described with respect to the methods are applicable to the systems and compositions. Within this specification embodiments have been described in a way which enables a clear and concise specification to be written, but it is intended and will be appreciated that embodiments may be variously combined or separated without parting from the invention.

Thus, while the invention has been described in connection with particular embodiments and examples, the invention is not necessarily so limited, and that numerous other embodiments, examples, uses, modifications and departures from the embodiments, examples and uses are intended to be encompassed by the claims attached hereto. The entire disclosure of each patent and publication cited herein is incorporated by reference, as if each such patent or publication were individually incorporated by reference herein.

Various features and advantages of the invention are set forth in the following claims. 

1. A method of making boron oxide nanoparticles comprising sonochemically treating a solution comprising a boron oxide to form boron oxide nanoparticles.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the boron oxide is boron trioxide.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the formed nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 10 nanometers.
 4. (canceled)
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the solution comprises at least one capping agent.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the at least one capping agent is oleic acid.
 7. The method of claim 1 further comprising solubilizing the boron oxide nanoparticles.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein solubilizing the boron oxide nanoparticles comprises contacting the nanoparticles with a water-soluble capping agent.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the water-soluble capping agent is carboxymethyl-dextran.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the boron oxide is isotopically labeled with Boron-10 or Boron-11.
 11. (canceled)
 12. The method of claim 1 further comprising isolating and vacuum drying the boron oxide nanoparticles.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles are in the form of a solid powder.
 14. (canceled)
 15. A composition comprising a plurality of boron oxide nanoparticles having an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 5 nanometers with a standard deviation of less than 1 nanometer.
 16. The composition of claim 15, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles comprise boron trioxide.
 17. The composition of claim 15, wherein the composition is soluble in aqueous solutions.
 18. The composition of claim 15, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles comprise a water soluble capping agent.
 19. (canceled)
 20. (canceled)
 21. The composition of claim 15, wherein the composition is a composite and the boron oxide nanoparticles are homogenously distributed throughout the composite
 22. A composition for use as an agent for neutron capture therapy of cancer, the composition comprising a boron oxide nanoparticles, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have an average cross-sectional diameter of less than 50 nanometers and are isotopically labeled with Boron-10 or Boron-11.
 23. The composition of claim 22, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles have a substantially spherical shape.
 24. The composition of claim 22, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles comprise boron trioxide.
 25. The composition of claim 22, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles are in the form of a dry powder.
 26. (canceled)
 27. The composition of claim 22, wherein the boron oxide nanoparticles are non-toxic to mammalian cells at concentrations of less than 1 mM.
 28. (canceled)
 29. A system for making boron oxide nanoparticles, the system comprising: a solution comprising boron trioxide; and a probe sonicator configured to apply sound energy to the solution to form boron oxide nanoparticles.
 30. The system of claim 29, wherein the solution comprises a capping agent.
 31. The system of claim 30, further comprising separator configured to isolate the boron oxide nanoparticles by removing the supernatant capping agent.
 32. (canceled)
 33. The system of claim 29, further comprising a lyophilizer configured to vacuum dry the solution.
 34. The system of claim 29, further comprising a temperature control system configured to cool the solution during sonication. 35-41. (canceled) 